Never Give Up

Sandhy Sandoro – Blue night / malam biru Lyrick

Posted on December 15, 2010 by syahtra

Oh kasihku
Ini ini laguku
Hanya untuk dirimu
Tanda cintaku

Padamu oh kasihku..
Ini ini laguku
Hanya untuk dirimu
Tanda cintaku

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CANON EOS-1D mark IV

Posted on July 19, 2010 by syahtra

Canon meluncurkan EOS-1D Mark IV pengganti EOS-1D Mark III. Kamera ini memiliki fitur perbaikan dari pendahulunya antara lain, 10 fps, 45 point auto focus system, 16 megapixel, hi ISO sensitivity dan full HD video recording. Diperkirakan harganya sekitar $5,000.

CAMERA CANON EOS - D1

INTRODUCING THE ULTIMATE MULTIMEDIA IMAGING SOLUTION: THE NEW CANON EOS-1D MARK IV DIGITAL SLR CAMERA

The EOS-1D Mark IV Features a Completely Redesigned 45-Point Autofocus System, Fast 10 fps Continuous Shooting, 16-Megapixel Resolution, Outstanding ISO Sensitivity, and Full HD Video Recording at Selectable Frame Rates

LAKE SUCCESS, N.Y., October 20, 2009 – Canon U.S.A., Inc., a leader in digital imaging, is proud to introduce the next evolution in the EOS 1D series of cameras: the Canon EOS-1D Mark IV Digital SLR camera. The EOS-1D Mark IV is a high-speed multimedia performance monster with a 16-megapixel Canon CMOS sensor, Dual DIGIC 4 Imaging Processors, and 14-bit A/D data conversion, all at 10 frames-per-second (fps), with the widest ISO range Canon has produced to date. This new camera also features 1080p Full High-Definition video capture at selectable frame rates packaged in Canon’s most rugged and durable professional camera body.

The crowning achievement of Canon’s 1D Mark IV Digital SLR is its new autofocus system that starts with 45 AF points including 39 high-precision cross-type focusing points capable of tracking fast moving athletes or wildlife accurately at speeds up to 10 frames per second. With greater subject detection capability than ever before plus a newly redesigned AI Servo II AF predictive focusing algorithm, the Canon EOS-1D Mark IV camera sets new standards for autofocus performance among professional digital SLRs. Whether shooting for the six o’clock news or the front page, the EOS-1D Mark IV Digital SLR is the quintessential camera to freeze fast-moving action with high-speed stills or capture stunning HD video with dynamic color and image quality. To accompany the new EOS-1D Mark IV Digital SLR camera, Canon is also announcing a new accessory, the WFT-E2 II A wireless file transmitter providing photographers with a wide range of professional digital connectivity options.

“Canon works hard to be the imaging leader in all our business endeavors. This goal has fueled our innovation and R&D efforts to engineer the most advanced autofocus system Canon has ever produced. We are proud to announce the camera that will deliver the ultimate in imaging quality to professionals working in all areas of multimedia imaging, whether it’s action photography, photojournalism or HD video and cinematography,” stated Yuichi Ishizuka, senior vice president and general manager, Consumer Imaging Group, Canon U.S.A.

The Canon EOS-1D Mark IV camera will intrigue professional photographers in virtually every category from photojournalism and sports through nature, wedding, portrait and fashion to commercial, industrial and law enforcement. What makes the EOS-1D Mark IV camera different from its predecessors, in addition to numerous focusing system and image quality improvements, is its exceptional Full HD video capture capability. With this new level of functionality, the 1D Mark IV Digital SLR is destined to appeal not only to professional still photographers but also to a diverse market of professional videographers and filmmakers who are looking for exceptional Full HD video quality, amazing low-light performance, outstanding portability and a level of durability unheard of in most HD video cameras in this price range.

New 45-Point Autofocus System

The new EOS-1D Mark IV Digital SLR camera features Canon’s most advanced Autofocus system to date. It is equipped with a newly developed 45-point AF sensor featuring 39 high-precision cross-type AF points, and an all new AI Servo II AF mode that gives still photographers the power and performance to track and focus a fast-moving subject at speeds up to 10 frames per second. With more than twice as many cross-type focusing points as the EOS-1D Mark III and a new AF sensor construction that improves performance in low light and with low contrast subjects, the EOS-1D Mark IV has greater subject detection capabilities than any previous EOS model. To complete the range of AF improvements, Canon has developed a new AI Servo II AF predictive focusing algorithm that significantly improves responsiveness and stability by making better decisions on focus tracking in a variety of shooting conditions.

Amazing High ISO Performance

Wedding and event photographers shooting in low light without the benefit of a flash can take advantage of Canon’s widest ISO range and highest performance ever. The EOS-1D Mark IV camera’s ISO speed settings range from 100 up to 12,800 in 1/3 or 1/2 stop increments with ISO Expansion settings of L: 50 for bright light or H1: 25,600, H2: 51,200, and H3: 102,400 for even the most dimly lit situations. Photographers and documentary filmmakers working in available light will be impressed by the low-noise image quality of the 1D Mark IV, capturing amazing still images and video footage even at speed settings as high as ISO 12,800. High ISO, low light still images are further enhanced by Canon’s adjustable High ISO Noise Reduction feature, now a default setting in the camera.

The EOS-1D Mark IV, EOS HD Video Powerhouse

Over the past year, Canon’s EOS HD Video technology has changed the way users capture 1080p HD video and opened new doors for multimedia journalists and Hollywood cinematographers alike with full manual exposure control, selectable frame rates, and interchangeable lenses on some of the largest and most sensitive image sensors on the market. Canon continues this innovation trend with the new EOS-1D Mark IV Digital SLR with Full HD capture and full manual exposure control, plus selectable frame rates on an all-new APS-H-sized image sensor that’s similar in size to a Super 35mm motion picture film frame. The large sensor allows filmmakers to achieve shallow depth-of-field just as cinematographers have traditionally done using much higher-cost motion picture equipment.

The more than 50 Canon EF lenses compatible with the EOS-1D Mark IV give videographers incredible creative options, including an impressive selection of large-aperture professional L-series primes as well as zoom lenses, macro, Tilt-Shift and Fisheye optics. The Canon EOS-1D Mark IV allows for three video recording resolutions – 1080p Full HD and 720p HD in a 16:9 aspect ratio and Standard Definition (SD) in a 4:3 aspect ratio. The camera will record Full HD at 1920 x 1080 in selectable frame rates of 24p (23.976), 25p, or 30p (29.97); and 720p HD or SD video recording at either 50p or 60p (59.94). SD video can be recorded in either NTSC or PAL standards. Sound is recorded either through the internal monaural microphone or via optional external microphones connected to the stereo microphone input. The camera also provides an in-camera video editing function allowing users to remove the start or ending of a video clip directly in the camera to eliminate unwanted footage and speed up post-production.

Image Quality and Performance

The heart of the EOS-1D Mark IV camera’s outstanding image quality is a newly developed 16.1-Megapixel CMOS sensor featuring Canon’s latest and most advanced proprietary technologies. These technologies include improved photodiode construction to enhance dynamic range and gapless microlenses that are positioned closer to the photodiodes for improved light gathering efficiency. The transmissive quality of the color filter array has been enhanced to improve sensitivity. Canon has also upgraded the sensor circuitry to improve noise reduction before the image data is exported from the CMOS sensor to the rest of the image processing chain.

With 60 percent more pixels than the EOS-1D Mark III, the EOS-1D Mark IV Digital SLR employs Dual DIGIC 4 Image Processors with approximately six times the processing power of DIGIC III for full 14-bit A/D conversion at 10 fps. High-speed continuous shooting up to 121 Large JPEGs is possible using a UDMA CF card. This camera also features three RAW shooting modes for versatility with Full RAW (approx. 16 million pixels), M-RAW (approx. nine million pixels), and S-RAW (approx. four million pixels). Three additional JPEG recording formats (M1, M2 and Small) are also available.

The 14-bit per channel conversion facilitated by the dual DIGIC 4 Processors provides smoother tonalities in final images capturing all 16,384 distinct tones in each channel (red, green and blue) at the full 10 fps frame rate. RAW images shot on the new Canon EOS-1D Mark IV use the entire 14-bit space when converted to 16-bit TIFF files in Canon Digital Photo Professional (DPP) software, which is supplied with the camera at no extra charge. The 14-bit A/D conversion is also the foundation for Canon’s Highlight Tone Priority feature that takes maximum advantage of the camera’s extensive dynamic range to preserve detail in highlight areas of the image. Canon’s new EOS-1D Mark IV Digital SLR also features an improved white balance algorithm making colors more accurate when shooting under low color temperature light sources such as household tungsten lamps.

The EOS-1D Mark IV Digital SLR features Canon’s Peripheral Illumination Correction function which corrects darkening that can occur in the corners of images with most lenses when used at their largest apertures. When activated, it is automatically applied to JPEG images and video clips as they are shot. For RAW images, it can be applied in DPP software.

Other new features include a large three-inch solid structure Clear View II LCD screen with 920,000 dot/VGA resolution and a wide 160-degree viewing angle for enhanced clarity and more precise color when reviewing images and shooting video. The new in-camera copyright information feature helps professionals secure control over images by setting copyright data directly into the camera and appending that information to each image file in the Exif metadata. Additional features include a fluorine coating on the Low Pass Filter to further repel dust and enhance the EOS Integrated Cleaning System.

Minimize Post-Production with Enhanced Canon Auto Lighting Optimizer

Action photography truly is all about speed, capturing a fast subject with fast focusing and fast frame rates. However, all this speed might be wasted if it is slowed down by lengthy post-production procedures to adjust image quality. The EOS-1D Mark IV Digital SLR helps reduce post-production work with a powerful new Auto Lighting Optimizer (ALO) system. When enabled, Canon’s ALO automatically adjusts the image for optimal brightness and contrast on the fly during in-camera image processing, reducing clipped highlights while keeping shadowed areas as clear and detailed as they actually appear. By optimizing brightness and contrast in-camera, Canon’s ALO system significantly reduces the need for post-production image optimization, and gives photographers image quality they can take directly to press. Demanding professional photographers who tested ALO clearly stated that this one feature will reduce their post-production image optimization process by more than 75 percent. Canon’s ALO works with both RAWi and JPEG images as well as video recording.

Rugged Reliability

Canon has taken every measure to ensure that the EOS-1D Mark IV Digital SLR camera has the highest degree of weather resistance in the EOS line. The 1D Mark IV camera incorporates a wide range of design features that enhance its durability and reliability for professional assignments. For example, the 1D Mark IV’s body, chassis and lens mount are completely weather-resistant and 76 gaskets and seals surround all buttons and seams. The body covers and internal chassis, including the mirror box, are constructed with magnesium-alloy, one of the strongest and rigid metals available for its weight. For added strength, the lens mount is constructed with stainless steel. In fact, when used with Canon’s Speedlite 580EX II and/or most current L-series lenses, the entire camera system remains fully weather resistant, so professionals can concentrate on getting the shot instead of worrying about protecting their gear.

Pricing and Availability

The Canon EOS-1D Mark IV Digital SLR camera is scheduled to be delivered to U.S. dealers in late December, and will be sold in a body-only configuration at an estimated retail price of $4,999.00. Final pricing and availability for the Canon WFT-E2 II A wireless file transmitter will be available later this year.

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Capoeira

Posted on July 6, 2010 by syahtra

Capoeira (Portuguese pronunciation: [kapuˈejɾɐ]) is an Afro-Brazilian art form that combines elements of martial arts, music, and dance. It was created in Brazil by slaves from Africa, especially from Angola, Mozambique and Congo sometime after the sixteenth century.[1] It was developed in the region of Quilombo dos Palmares, located in the Brazilian state of Alagoas, which was the state of Pernambuco before dismemberment,[2] and has had great influence on Afro-Brazilian generations, with strong presence in the states of Bahia, Pernambuco, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.[2] Participants form a roda, or circle, and take turns either playing musical instruments (such as the Berimbau), singing, or ritually sparring in pairs in the center of the circle. The sparring is marked by fluid acrobatic play, feints, takedowns, and with extensive use of leg sweeps, kicks, and headbutts. Less frequently used techniques include elbow strikes, slaps, punches, and body throws. Its origins and purpose are a matter of debate, with theories ranging from views of Capoeira as a uniquely Brazilian folk dance with improvised fighting movements to claims that it is a battle-ready fighting form directly descended from ancient African techniques.[3]
Contents [hide]

* 1 Etymology
* 2 Afro-Brazilian art form
* 3 Status in Brazil and development as a sport
* 4 Outside Brazil
* 5 Music
* 6 Ranks
* 7 Roda
* 8 The jogo (game/match)
o 8.1 Ginga
o 8.2 Attacks
o 8.3 Defenses
o 8.4 Combinations
o 8.5 Chamada
o 8.6 Volta ao mundo
o 8.7 Malandragem
o 8.8 Capoeira angola
o 8.9 Capoeira regional
o 8.10 Capoeira Contemporânea
* 9 Special events
* 10 Related activities
o 10.1 Samba de roda
o 10.2 Maculelê
o 10.3 Puxada de rede
* 11 Capoeira in popular culture
* 12 Important mestres
* 13 See also
* 14 Notes
o 14.1 Printed references
o 14.2 Further reading
* 15 External links

Etymology

The word “capoeira” had a probable origin as a derisive term used by slave owners to refer to its practice as chicken fights (the word literally means “chicken coop” in Portuguese). Another claim is that the word “capoeira” derives from the Native-American language Tupi-Guarani words kaá (“leaf”, “plant”) and puéra (past aspect marker), meaning “formerly a forest.”[citation needed]
Afro-Brazilian art form

Historians are divided between those who believe it is a direct descendant of African fighting styles, and those who believe it is a uniquely Brazilian dance form distilled from various African and Brazilian influences.[3] One popular explanation holds that it is an African fighting style that was developed in Brazil, as expressed by a proponent named Salvano,[who?] who said, “Capoeira cannot exist without black men but its birthplace is Brazil… Capoeira, as it was taught to me, is the warrior’s dance that was done between slaves that escaped their masters outside the cities. I was taught Capoeira in Rio de Janeiro by master Morcego who had come from Bahia, where he said Capoeira was played in the streets since he was little.” (Page’ Retifumo, MR)[citation needed]

Some interpretations emphasize capoeira as a fighting style designed for rebellion, but disguised by a façade of dance. Supporting the martial interpretation are renderings in the 1835 Voyage Pittoresque dans le Brésil (Picturesque Voyage to Brazil), where ethnographic artist Johann Moritz Rugendas depicts Capoeira or the Dance of War, lending historical credence to the idea that Capoeira is a combative art form with many dance elements.

Other Pan African-American combative traditions parallel capoeira. According to Dr. Morton Marks, the island of Martinique is famous for danymé, also known as ladja.[4] As with capoeira, “there is a ring of spectators into which each contestant enters, moving in a counter-clockwise direction and dancing toward drummers. This move, known as Kouwi Lawon (or ‘Circular Run’ in Creole), is an exact parallel to the capoeira interlude called dá volta ao mundo or ‘take a turn around the world.’”[4] Marks stated that in Cuba, a mock-combat dance called Mani was performed to yuka drums.[4] “A dancer (manisero) would stand in the middle of a ring of spectator-participants and, moving to the sound of the songs and drums, would pick someone from the circle and attempt to knock them down.” Some of the manisero’s moves and kicks were similar to those of Afro-Brazilian capoeira including its basic leg-sweep (rasteira).[4]

In Capoeira : A History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art, Matthias Röhrig Assunção compared “three American combat traditions: knocking and kicking in the United States, ladija in Martinique, and capoeira in Brazil.”[5] African-derived combat games similar to wrestling and stick fighting were also witnessed and documented in seventeenth-century Barbados, eighteenth-century Jamaica, and nineteenth century Venezuela.[6] Stick fighting was and still is practiced in Trinidad, Carriacou, Dominica, and Haiti.[6]

Maya Talmon-Chvaicer suggested capoeira may have been influenced by a ritual fight-dance called N’golo (the zebra dance) from Southern Angola, which was performed during the “Efundula, a puberty rite for women of the Mucope, Muxilenge, and Muhumbe tribes of southern Angola.” [7] Since the 1960s, the N’golo theory has become popular amongst some practitioners of capoeira Angola, although it is not universally accepted.

While many of these games are combative, it is widely accepted that slaves in the New World would have sought both violent and jovial means of coping with their oppression.
Status in Brazil and development as a sport

For some time, Capoeira was criminalized and prohibited in Brazil. Assunção provided ample data from police records dating back to the 1800s demonstrating that capoeira was an “important reason” to detain slaves and “free coloured individuals”.[8] “From 288 slaves that entered the Calabouço jail during the year 1857-1858, 80 (31 per cent) were arrested for [capoeira], and only 28 (10.7 per cent) for running away. Out of 4,303 arrests in Rio police jail in 1862, 404 detainess –nearly 10 per cent– had been arrested for capoeira.”[9] In 1890, Brazilian president Deodoro da Fonseca signed an act that prohibited the practice of capoeira nationwide, with severe punishment for those caught.[citation needed] It was nevertheless practiced by the poorer population on public holidays, during work-free hours, and on other similar occasions. Riots, also caused by police interference, were common[citation needed].

In spite of the ban, Manuel dos Reis Machado (Mestre Bimba) pioneered real capoeira which became knowns as “Capoeira Regional.” Reis Machado was finally successful in convincing the authorities of the cultural value of capoeira, thus ending the official ban in the 1930s.[10] Reis Machado founded the first capoeira school in 1932, the Academia-escola de Capoeira Regional at the Engenho de Brotas in Salvador-Bahia. He was then considered “the father of modern capoeira”. In 1937, he earned the state board of education certificate.[10] In 1942, Reis Machado opened his second school at the Terreiro de Jesus – rua das Laranjeiras. The school is still open today and supervised by his pupil, known as “Vermelho-27″[citation needed].

Having saved capoeira from illegality, Mestre Bimba began being challenged by other capoeira masters who possessed their own unique capoeira styles, such as capoeira angola. There were several prominent angola mestres at this time in Salvador and they held regular rodas together in an area called Gengibirra of Salvador.[11] There were twenty-two mestres in all; among them were Mestre Amorzinho—who commanded the rodas–, Daniel Coutinho–”Mestre Noronha”–, Onça Preta, Geraldo Chapeleiro, Juvenal, and Livino Diogo.[11] Together they founded a center for capoeira Angola.[11] Around the time of Amorzinho’s death in 1941-1942 Vicente Ferreira Pastinha, best known as “Mestre Pastinha”, took over the center, called the Centro Esportivo de Capoeira Angola.[12] Pastinha worked almost up to his death in 1981 to codify the more traditional Angola style of capoeira and he wrote endlessly on the sport.[13] Because he preserved much of the traditional style of capoeira, in his practice, teachings, and writings, he too is important to modern capoeira.

UFC Middleweight Champion Anderson Silva is a practitioner of Capoeira.
Outside Brazil
DanceBrazil performs the capoeira Ritmos using choreography by Artistic Director Jelon Vieira.

Capoeira is growing in popularity worldwide. There have been comparisons drawn between the Afro-North American art form of the blues and capoeira[citation needed]. Both were practiced and developed by African-American slaves, both retained distinctive African aesthetics and cultural qualities; both were shunned and looked down upon by the majority societies within which they developed, and both fostered a deep sense of Afrocentric pride especially amongst poorer and darker-skinned blacks.

“Artur Emídio was probably the first capoeirista ever to perform abroad;” in the late 1950’s and early 1960’s he went to Argentina, Mexico, the US, and Europe.[14] Groups such as Brazil Tropical, headed by Domingos Campos and M. Camisa Roxa, toured Europe in the 1970’s.[14] Jelon Vieira’s Dance Brazil, founded in New York City in 1977, has been particularly influential in popularizing the capoeira among American audiences.[14]

In the mid-1970s masters of the art form began to emigrate and teach capoeira in the United States and other countries.[11] At this time capoeira in Brazil was still primarily practiced among the poorest and blackest of Brazilians. With its immigration to the U.S., however, much of the stigma with which it was historically associated in Brazil was shed.

Today there are many capoeira schools all over the world, and it has attracted a broad spectrum of multicultural, multiracial students.[citation needed]
Music
Main article: Capoeira music
A capoeira bateria led by Cobra Mansa featuring three berimbaus and a pandeiro.

Music is integral to capoeira. It sets the tempo and style of game that is to be played within the roda. The music is composed of instruments and song. The tempos differ from very slow (Angola) to very fast (são bento regional). Many of the songs are sung in a call and response format while others are in the form of a narrative. Capoeiristas sing about a wide variety of subjects. Some songs are about history or stories of famous capoeiristas. Other songs attempt to inspire players to play better. Some songs are about what is going on within the roda. Sometimes the songs are about life or love lost. Others have lighthearted and playful lyrics. Capoeiristas change their playing style significantly as the songs or rhythm from the berimbau commands. In this manner, it is truly the music that drives capoeira.

There are three basic kinds of songs in capoeira[citation needed]. A ladainha (litany) is a narrative solo usually sung at the beginning of a roda, often by the mestre (master). These ladainhas will often be famous songs previously written by a mestre, or they may be improvised on the spot. A ladainha is usually followed by a chula or louvação, following a call and response pattern that usually thanks God and one’s teacher, among other things. Each call is usually repeated word-for-word by the responders. The ladainha and chula are often omitted in regional games. Finally, corridos are songs that are sung while a game is being played, again following the call and response pattern. The responses to each call do not simply repeat what was said, however, but change depending on the song.

The instruments are played in a row called the bateria. The rhythm of the bateria is set by the berimbaus (stringed percussion instruments that look like musical bows). Other instruments in the bateria are: two pandeiros (tambourines), a reco-reco (rasp), and an agogô (double gong bell). The atabaque (conga-like drum), a common feature in most capoeira baterias, is considered an optional instrument, and is not required for a full bateria in some groups.
Ranks

While the variety in styles lead to a variety of ranking systems, there is a standard trend that most systems of capoeira follow. In order of ascension, those ranks are aluno (student), graduado (graduated), formado (formed), professor (teacher), and mestre (master).

Usually at their first batizado (baptism), a capoeirista will be given the rank of aluno. In some styles, this may also come with a cordão (rope) and / or apelido (nickname). Aluno translates to “student” in English, and so an aluno is a student of capoeira. Their rank is a recognition of their readiness to learn.

After an aluno becomes well versed in the capoeira they are learning, they can be recognized as an aluno graduado (graduated student). This means they’ve learned enough about capoeira to be trusted to teach the art to others. At this point, they would continue to learn not only capoeira, but how to teach capoeira. It could be considered the equivalent of a black belt in Eastern martial arts.

An aluno graduado can then become an aluno formado (formed student). They have formed their own capoeira and are now ready to teach others. A formado will usually be an instructor assisting the head of whichever school they are a part of.

The aluno formado goes on to become a professor. Formado and professor are generally similar in rank, the main difference being a professor might have his own school in which to teach, while a formado would usually be an assistant instructor.

The final rank in capoeira would be a mestre (master). As the name states, the mestre is a master of capoeira. Mestres tend to be the true voices of capoeira. All other ranks are usually assigned by a mestre, but this rank is hard to assign. For the most part, a capoeirista becomes a mestre when the capoeira community recognizes them as one. This will usually take place after 15 to 20 years of continuous training.
Roda
“Roda de Capoeira”

The Roda ( Ho-Da ) or “Roda de Capoeira” is the circle of people within which capoeira is played. Its circular shape is maintained to keep focus on the players and musicians and retain the energy created by the capoeira game.

The people who make up the roda’s circular shape clap and sing along to the music being played by the musicians in the bateria or drum set for the two partners engaged in a capoeira “game” (jogo). The “mouth” of the roda is located directly in front of the bateria. It is at this point where the players begin every game and generally where any new players must enter. In some capoeira schools an individual in the audience can “buy in” to engage one of the two players and begin another game.

The roda is typically about 3 metres (9.8 ft) in diameter, although the size varies and may be up to 10 meters in diameter (30 feet). The rhythm being played on the berimbau sets the pace and goals of the game played within the roda. Slow music limits the game to slow yet complex ground moves and handstands.

Contact in capoeira is generally not made but rather feigned or done theatrically.

In Capoeira Angola, the game rarely involves contact but the danger and possibility of it is always present. In capoeira contemporanea, during some rhythms (e.g. Benguela, Iuna) strikes are shown but not finished while in others (e.g., São Bento Grande de Regional) the players have more freedom to strike each other and make contact. Often games with contact are played at a fast pace, however it is the specific “toque” played on the berimbau, regardless of its speed, which dictates the type of game to be played.

For the participants, the roda is a microcosm of life and the world around them. Most often in the roda, the capoeirista’s greatest opponent is himself and philosophy plays a large part in capoeira. A good teacher will strive to teach respect, safety, Malicia, and freedom.

Modern capoeira is often criticized by more traditional practitioners of capoeira as being in the process of losing its playfulness and dialogue due to the prevalence of impressive acrobatics and martial elements over the playful and intricate interactions of capoeira Angola[citation needed].

Dominance in the roda is as much psychological and artistic as it is a question of who is taken down. Capoeira is uniquely social. Networking with other groups and students from other teachers can teach a capoeirista more about the art and improve their skills.
The jogo (game/match)
See also: List of capoeira techniques
Capoeiristas outside (Porto Alegre, Brasil)
Capoeiristas outside

Capoeira does not focus on injuring the opponent. Rather, it emphasizes skill. Capoeiristas often prefer to show the movement without completing it, enforcing their superiority in the roda. If an opponent cannot dodge a slow attack, there is no reason to use a faster one. Each attack that comes in gives players a chance to practice an evasive technique.
Ginga

The ginga (literally: rocking back and forth; to swing) is the fundamental movement in capoeira. Capoeira Angola and Capoeira Regional have distinctive forms of ginga. Both are accomplished by maintaining both feet approximately shoulder-width apart and then moving one foot backwards and then back to the base, describing a triangular step on the ground. This movement is done to prepare the body for other movements.

The rest of the body is also involved in the ginga: coordination of the arms (in such a way as to prevent the body from being kicked), torso (many core muscles may be engaged depending on the player’s style), and the leaning of the body (forward and back in relation to the position of the feet; the body leans back to avoid kicks, and forward to create opportunities to show attacks). The overall movement should match the rhythm being played by the bateria.
Attacks

Capoeira primarily attacks with kicks, sweeps, takedowns, and head strikes. Some schools teach punches and hand strikes, but they are not as common. A possible explanation for the primary use of feet is the common West African belief that hands are for creation and feet for destruction[citation needed]. Another common explanation is that slaves in Brazil were commonly shackled at the wrists, restricting them from using their hands[citation needed]. Lastly, striking with the hands is often seen as inelegant and disruptive to the flow of the game. Elbow strikes are commonly used in place of hand strikes. “Cabeçadas” or headbutts are as common as they are in many of the fighting arts of the African Diaspora[citation needed]. Knee strikes are sometimes seen. Capoeira also uses acrobatic and athletic movements to maneuver around the opponent. Cartwheels called “aú” (a very common acrobatic movement), handstands (bananeira), headspins (pião de cabeça), hand-spins (pião de mão), handsprings (gato), sitting movements, turns, jumps, flips (mortal), and large dodges are all very common in capoeira though vary greatly depending on the form and rhythm. Fakes and feints are also an extremely important element in capoeira games. The setting of traps or illusory movements are very common.
Defenses

Capoeira defenses consists of evasive moves and rolls. A series of ducks called esquivas, which literally means “escape”, are also staple of a capoeiristas’ defensive vocabulary. There are typically different esquivas for every step of the Ginga, depending on the direction of the kick and intention of the defender. A common defense is the rolê, which is a rolling move that combines a duck and a low movement. This move allows the defensive players to quickly evade an attack and position themselves around the aggressor in order to lay up for an attack. It is this combination of attacks and defense which gives a game of capoeira its perceived ‘fluidity’ and choreography.

Other evasive moves such as rasteira, vingativa, tesoura de mão or queda allow the capoeirista to move away or dangerously close in an attempt to trip up the aggressor in the briefest moment of vulnerability (usually in a mid-kick.)
Combinations
A Capoeira movement (Aú Fechado) (click for animation).

There are also styles of moves that combine both elements of attack and defense. An example is the au batido. The move begins as an evasive cartwheel which then turns into a blocking/kick, either as a reflexive response to a blocking move from the opposing player or when an opportunity to do so presents itself, e.g., at an opponent’s drop of guard. Two kicks called meia-lua-de-frente and armada are often combined to create a double spinning kick.
Chamada

The Chamada is a ritual that takes place within the game of Capoeira Angola. Chamada means ‘call’, and consists of one player ‘calling’ their opponent to participate in the ritual. There is an understood dialogue of gestures of the body that are used to call the opponent, and to signal the end of the ritual. The ritual consists of one player signaling, or calling the opponent, who then approaches the player and meets the player to walk side by side within the roda. The player who initiated the ritual then decides when to signal an end to the ritual, whereby the two players return to normal play. The critical points of the chamada occur during the approach, and the chamada is considered a ‘life lesson’, communicating the fact that the approach is a dangerous situation. Approaching people, animals, or life situations is always a critical moment when one must be aware of the danger of the situation. The purpose of the chamada is to communicate this lesson, and to enhance the awareness of people participating in the ritual.

During the ritual, after the opposing player has appropriately approached the caller of the chamada, the players walk side by side inside the circle in which the game is played. This is another critical situation, because both players are now very vulnerable due to the close proximity and potential for surprise attack.

Experienced practitioners and masters of the art will sometimes test a student’s awareness by suggesting strikes, head-butts, or trips during a chamada to demonstrate when the student left themselves open to attack. The end of a chamada is called by the player that initiated the ritual, and consists of a gesture inviting the player to return to normal play. This is another critical moment when both players are vulnerable to surprise attack.

The chamada can result in a highly developed sense of awareness and helps practitioners learn the subtleties of anticipating another person’s intentions. The chamada can be very simple, consisting solely of the basic elements, or the ritual can be quite elaborate including a competitive dialogue of trickery, or even theatric embellishments.
Volta ao mundo

Volta ao mundo means “around the world”.[4]

The volta ao mundo takes place after an exchange of movements has reached a conclusion, or after there has been a disruption in the harmony of the game. In either of these situations, one player will begin walking around the perimeter of the circle, and the other player will join the “around the world” before returning to the normal game.
Malandragem

Malandragem is a word that comes from malandro, which means a person who possesses cunning as well as malicia, which translates to “malice.” This, however, is misleading as the meaning of malicia means trickery/deceit. The word comes from the historical folklore of Brasil, in which men who were marginalized from main stream society and possessed street smarts were called malandros. Malandragem is an attitude derived from the mindset of the malandro and is a unique and distinguishing characteristic of the art of capoeira.
Capoeira angola
Main article: Capoeira Angola

Capoeira angola is considered to be the more ancient form of capoeira[citation needed] and is often characterized by deeply held traditions, slower movements and with the players playing their games in closer proximity to each other than in regional or contemporanea. Capoeira angola is often characterized as being slower and lower to the ground than other major forms of Capoeira, although in actual practice, the speed varies in accordance with the music. It is played much as it Capoeira originally was played on the street before being moved indoors and systematized into the more modernized version of Capoiera regional. Capoeira Angola is also known for the chamada, a physical call-and-response used to challenge an opponent or to change the style in the roda.

The father of the best known modern Capoeira angola schools is considered to be Grão-Mestre Pastinha who lived in Salvador, Bahia. Today, many of the Capoeira angola schools in the United States come from Mestres in Pastinha’s lineage. He was not the only Capoeira angola mestre, but is considered to be the “Father of Capoeira angola”[15] bringing this style of Capoeira into the modern setting of an academy. He also wrote the first book about Capoeira, Capoeira Angola, now out of print. Capoeira angola has experienced an explosion of growth during the past 20 years, it can be found in few cities Brazil where it’s not often practiced or even recognized as real capoeira and many larger cities in the USA, Europe, South America, Japan, as well as many other locations.
Capoeira regional

Regional is the more common form of Capoeira, it is practiced much more widely in Brazil then any other style of Capoeira and it’s often what Brazilians refer to when they speak of Capoeira. Capoeira Regional was developed by Reis Machado (Mestre Bimba) to make capoeira more effective and bring it closer to its fighting origins, and less associated with the criminal elements of Brazil. The Capoeira Regional style is often considered to consist of faster and more athletic play than the lesser-known Capoeira angola.

Later, modern regional came to be Capoeira Contemporânea. Developed by other people from Bimba’s regional, this type of game is characterized by high jumps, acrobatics, and spinning kicks. This regional should not be confused with the original style created by Reis Machado.

Regional ranks capoeiristas by ability, denoting different skill with the use of a corda (colored rope, also known as cordel or cordão) worn as a belt. Angola does not use such a formal system of ranking, relying instead upon the discretion of a student’s mestre. In both forms, though, recognition of advanced skill comes only after many years of constant practice[citation needed].
Capoeira Contemporânea

Contemporânea is a term for groups that train multiple styles of capoeira simultaneously. Very often students of Capoeira Contemporânea train elements of Regional and Angola as well as newer movements that would not fall under either of those styles.

The label Contemporânea also applies to many groups who do not trace their lineage through Reis Machado or Pastinha and do not strongly associate with either tradition.

In recent years, the various philosophies of modern capoeira have been expressed by the formation of schools, particularly in North America, which focus on and continue to develop their specific form of the modern art. This has become a defining characteristic of many schools, to the point that a seasoned student can sometimes tell what school a person trains from, based solely on the way they play the game. Some schools teach a blended version of the many different styles. Traditionally, rodas in these schools will begin with a period of Angola, in which the school’s mestre, or an advanced student, will sing a ladainha, (a long, melancholy song, often heard at the start of an Angola game). After some time, the game will eventually increase in tempo, until, at the mestre’s signal, the toque of the berimbaus changes to that of traditional Regional.

Each game, Regional and Angola stresses different strengths and abilities. Regional emphasizes speed and quick reflexes, whereas Angola underscores a great deal of thought given to each move, almost like a game of chess. Schools that teach a blend of these try to offer this mix as a way of using the strengths of both games to influence a player.
Special events
Capoeira performance in Recoleta, Buenos Aires, Argentina.

Capoeira regional groups periodically hold Batizados (“baptisms” into the art of capoeira). Members being “baptized” are normally given a corda (cord belt) and an apelido (capoeira nickname) if they haven’t already earned one. Batizados are major events to which a number of groups and masters from near and far are normally invited.

Sometimes a Batizado is also held in conjunction with a Troca de Corda (change of belts), in which students already baptized who have trained hard and been deemed worthy by their teachers are awarded higher-ranking belts as an acknowledgment of their efforts. Such ceremonies provide opportunities to see a variety of different capoeira styles, watch mestres play, and see some of the best of the game.

Batizados and Trocas de Cordoes do not occur in capoeira Angola, which does not have a system of belts. However, some contemporary schools of capoeira have combined the study of both arts and may require their students to be learned in the ways of capoeira Angola before being awarded a higher belt.
Related activities
Samba de roda
Main article: Samba

Performed by many capoeira groups, samba de roda is a traditional Afro-Brazilian dance & musical form that has been associated with capoeira for many years. The orchestra is composed by pandeiro (tambourine), atabaque (drum), berimbau-viola (berimbau with the smallest cabaça and the highest pitch), chocalho (rattle – a percussion instrument), accompanied by singing and clapping. Samba de roda is considered the primitive form of modern Samba.
Maculelê
Main article: Maculelê (dance)

Maculelê is a dance that tells the story of the enslaved Africans who worked the sugarcane plantations in Brasil. The sugar cane was cut with machetes, and in the Maculele dance, dancers click machete blades rhythmically within the dance. Sometimes sticks are used instead of machete blades, however it is understood the sticks symbolize the machetes used to cut the sugarcane in the time of slavery. Maculele and capoeira share the same history and tell the story of the people who invented these art froms, therefore they are usually taught and performed together.
Puxada de rede
Main article: Puxada de rede

Puxada de Rede is a Brazilian folkloric theatrical play, seen in many capoeira performances. It is based on a traditional Brazilian legend involving the loss of a fisherman in a sea-faring accident
Capoeira in popular culture

See also: Capoeira in popular culture
Important mestres
See also: Category:Capoeira mestres

* Manuel dos Reis Machado (Mestre Bimba), a founder of the Luta Regional Bahiana.
* Vicente Ferreira Pastinha (Mestre Pastinha), a founder of the Centro Esportivo Capoeira Angola.
* Reinaldo Ramos Suassuna (Mestre Suassuna), a founder of “Cordao de Ouro.”

TerraBite

Posted on July 6, 2010 by syahtra

Terabyte

Standard SI Binary usage Ratio SI/Binary Name (Symbol)

Value kilobyte (kB) 103 210 0.9766

kibibyte (KiB) 210 megabyte (MB) 106 220 0.9537

mebibyte (MiB) 220 gigabyte (GB) 109 230 0.9313

gibibyte (GiB) 230 terabyte (TB) 1012 240 0.9095

tebibyte (TiB) 240 petabyte (PB) 1015 250 0.8882

pebibyte (PiB) 250 exabyte (EB) 1018 260

0.8674 exbibyte (EiB) 260 zettabyte (ZB) 1021 270

0.8470 zebibyte (ZiB) 270 yottabyte (YB) 1024 280

0.8272 yobibyte (YiB) 280 See
also: Multiples of bits ·
Orders of magnitude of data A terabyte (or Tbyte) is a SI-multiple (see prefix tera) of the unit byte for digital information storage and is equal to 1012 (1 trillion short scale) bytes. The unit symbol for the terabyte is TB. The designation terabyte is often used to refer to the tebibyte, its binary prefix analogue. Disk drive sizes are always designated in SI units by manufacturers. However, a possible confusion arises from this definition with the long-standing tradition in some fields of information technology and the computer industry of using binary prefix interpretations for memory sizes. Standards organizations such as International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and International Organization for Standardization (ISO) recommend to use the alternative term tebibyte to signify the traditional measure of 10244 bytes, or 1024 gibibytes, leading to the following definitions:

* In standard SI usage, 1 terabyte (TB) equals 1000000000000bytes = 10004 or 1012 bytes.

* Using the traditional binary interpretation, a terabyte would be 1099511627776bytes = 10244 = 240 bytes = 1 tebibyte (TiB). The capacities of computer storage devices are typically specified using their the standard SI meaning of unit prefixes, but many operating systems and applications report in binary-based units. Mac OS X 10.6 (Snow Leopard) reports decimal units. [edit] Examples of terabyte usage Examples of the use of “terabyte” to describe data sizes in different fields are:
* Library data – The U.S. Library of Congress Web Capture team has claimed that “As of February 2010, the Library has collected almost 160 terabytes of data”.[1]
* Online data bases – Ancestry.com claims approximately 600 TB of genealogical data with the inclusion of US Census data from 1790 to 1930.[2]
* Computer hardware – Hitachi introduced the world’s first one terabyte hard disk drive in 2007.[3]
* Internet traffic – In 1993, total Internet traffic amounted to approx. 100 TB for the year.[4] As of June 2008[update], Cisco Systems estimated Internet traffic at 160 TB/s (which assuming to be statistically constant comes to 5 zettabytes for the year).[5]
* Social networks – As of May 2009, Yahoo! Groups had “40 terabytes of data to index” [6]
* Video – Released in 2009, the 3D animated film Monsters vs. Aliens used 100 TB of storage during development.[7]
* Usenet messages – In October of 2000, the Deja News Usenet archive had stored over 500 million Usenet messages which used 1.5 TB of storage[8]

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Photography

Posted on May 12, 2010 by syahtra

Photography is the process, activity and art of creating still or moving pictures by recording radiation on a non-sensitive medium, such as a photographic film, or an electronic sensor. Light patterns reflected or emitted from objects activate a sensitive chemical or electronic sensor during a timed exposure, usually through a photographic lens in a device known as a camera that also stores the resulting information chemically or electronically. Photography has many uses for business, science, art, and pleasure.

Lens and mounting of a large-format camera.

A historic camera: the Contax S of 1949 — the first pentaprism SLR.

Nikon F of 1959 — the first 35mm film system camera.

Late Production Minox B camera with later style “honeycomb” selenium light meter

A portable folding reflector positioned to “bounce” sunlight onto a model

The word “photograph” was coined in 1839 by Sir John Herschel and is based on the Greek φῶς (photos) “light” and γραφή (graphé) “representation by means of lines” or “drawing”, together meaning “drawing with light”.^[1] Traditionally, the products of photography have been called negatives and photographs, commonly shortened to photos.

Function

The camera or camera obscura is the image-forming device, and photographic film or a silicon electronic image sensor is the sensing medium. The respective recording medium can be the film itself, or a digital electronic or magnetic memory.

Photographers control the camera and lens to “expose” the light recording material (such as film) to the required amount of light to form a “latent image” (on film) or “raw file” (in digital cameras) which, after appropriate processing, is converted to a usable image. Digital cameras use an electronic image sensor based on light-sensitive electronics such as charge-coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) technology. The resulting digital image is stored electronically, but can be reproduced on paper or film.

The movie camera is a type of photographic camera which takes a rapid sequence of photographs on strips of film. In contrast to a still camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time, the movie camera takes a series of images, each called a “frame”. This is accomplished through an intermittent mechanism. The frames are later played back in a movie projector at a specific speed, called the “frame rate” (number of frames per second). While viewing, a person’s eyes and brain merge the separate pictures together to create the illusion of motion.^[2]

In all but certain specialized cameras, the process of obtaining a usable exposure must involve the use, manually or automatically, of a few controls to ensure the photograph is clear, sharp and well illuminated. The controls usually include but are not limited to the following:

luminated. The controls usually include but are not limited to the following:

Control	Description
Focus	The adjustment to place the sharpest focus where it is desired on the subject.
Aperture	Adjustment of the lens opening, measured as f-number, which controls the amount of light passing through the lens. Aperture also has an effect on depth of field and diffraction – the higher the f-number, the smaller the opening, the less light, the greater the depth of field, and the more the diffraction blur. The focal length divided by the f-number gives the effective aperture diameter.
Shutter speed	Adjustment of the speed (often expressed either as fractions of seconds or as an angle, with mechanical shutters) of the shutter to control the amount of time during which the imaging medium is exposed to light for each exposure. Shutter speed may be used to control the amount of light striking the image plane; ‘faster’ shutter speeds (that is, those of shorter duration) decrease both the amount of light and the amount of image blurring from motion of the subject and/or camera.
White balance	On digital cameras, electronic compensation for the color temperature associated with a given set of lighting conditions, ensuring that white light is registered as such on the imaging chip and therefore that the colors in the frame will appear natural. On mechanical, film-based cameras, this function is served by the operator’s choice of film stock or with color correction filters. In addition to using white balance to register natural coloration of the image, photographers may employ white balance to aesthetic end, for example white balancing to a blue object in order to obtain a warm color temperature.
Metering	Measurement of exposure so that highlights and shadows are exposed according to the photographer’s wishes. Many modern cameras meter and set exposure automatically. Before automatic exposure, correct exposure was accomplished with the use of a separate light metering device or by the photographer’s knowledge and experience of gauging correct settings. To translate the amount of light into a usable aperture and shutter speed, the meter needs to adjust for the sensitivity of the film or sensor to light. This is done by setting the “film speed” or ISO sensitivity into the meter.
ISO speed	Traditionally used to “tell the camera” the film speed of the selected film on film cameras, ISO speeds are employed on modern digital cameras as an indication of the system’s gain from light to numerical output and to control the automatic exposure system. The higher the ISO number the greater the film sensitivity to light, whereas with a lower ISO number, the film is less sensitive to light. A correct combination of ISO speed, aperture, and shutter speed leads to an image that is neither too dark nor too light, hence it is ‘correctly exposed,’ indicated by a centered meter.
Autofocus point	On some cameras, the selection of a point in the imaging frame upon which the auto-focus system will attempt to focus. Many Single-lens reflex cameras (SLR) feature multiple auto-focus points in the viewfinder.

Many other elements of the imaging device itself may have a pronounced effect on the quality and/or aesthetic effect of a given photograph; among them are:

Focal length and type of lens (telephoto or “long” lens, macro, wide angle, fisheye, or zoom)
Filters placed between the subject and the light recording material, either in front of or behind the lens
Inherent sensitivity of the medium to light intensity and color/wavelengths.
The nature of the light recording material, for example its resolution as measured in pixels or grains of silver halide.

[edit] Exposure and rendering

Camera controls are inter-related. The total amount of light reaching the film plane (the “exposure”) changes with the duration of exposure, aperture of the lens, and on the effective focal length of the lens (which in variable focal length lenses, can force a change in aperture as the lens is zoomed). Changing any of these controls can alter the exposure. Many cameras may be set to adjust most or all of these controls automatically. This automatic functionality is useful for occasional photographers in many situations.

The duration of an exposure is referred to as shutter speed, often even in cameras that don’t have a physical shutter, and is typically measured in fractions of a second. Aperture is expressed by an f-number or f-stop (derived from focal ratio), which is proportional to the ratio of the focal length to the diameter of the aperture. If the f-number is decreased by a factor of $\sqrt 2$ , the aperture diameter is increased by the same factor, and its area is increased by a factor of 2. The f-stops that might be found on a typical lens include 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, where going up “one stop” (using lower f-stop numbers) doubles the amount of light reaching the film, and stopping down one stop halves the amount of light.

Image capture can be achieved through various combinations of shutter speed, aperture, and film or sensor speed. Different (but related) settings of aperture and shutter speed enable photographs to be taken under various conditions of film or sensor speed, lighting and motion of subjects and/or camera, and desired depth of field. A slower speed film will exhibit less “grain”, and a slower speed setting on an electronic sensor will exhibit less “noise”, while higher film and sensor speeds allow for a faster shutter speed, which reduces motion blur or allows the use of a smaller aperture to increase the depth of field. For example, a wider aperture is used for lower light and a lower aperture for more light. If a subject is in motion, then a high shutter speed may be needed. A tripod can also be helpful in that it enables a slower shutter speed to be used.

For example, f/8 at 8 ms (1/125th of a second) and f/5.6 at 4 ms (1/250th of a second) yield the same amount of light. The chosen combination has an impact on the final result. The aperture and focal length of the lens determine the depth of field, which refers to the range of distances from the lens that will be in focus. A longer lens or a wider aperture will result in “shallow” depth of field (i.e. only a small plane of the image will be in sharp focus). This is often useful for isolating subjects from backgrounds as in individual portraits or macro photography. Conversely, a shorter lens, or a smaller aperture, will result in more of the image being in focus. This is generally more desirable when photographing landscapes or groups of people. With very small apertures, such as pinholes, a wide range of distance can be brought into focus, but sharpness is severely degraded by diffraction with such small apertures. Generally, the highest degree of “sharpness” is achieved at an aperture near the middle of a lens’s range (for example, f/8 for a lens with available apertures of f/2.8 to f/16). However, as lens technology improves, lenses are becoming capable of making increasingly sharp images at wider apertures.

Image capture is only part of the image forming process. Regardless of material, some process must be employed to render the latent image captured by the camera into a viewable image. With slide film, the developed film is just mounted for projection. Print film requires the developed film negative to be printed onto photographic paper or transparency. Digital images may be uploaded to an image server (e.g., a photo-sharing web site), viewed on a television, or transferred to a computer or digital photo frame.

A photographer using a tripod for greater stability during long exposure

Prior to the rendering of a viewable image, modifications can be made using several controls. Many of these controls are similar to controls during image capture, while some are exclusive to the rendering process. Most printing controls have equivalent digital concepts, but some create different effects. For example, dodging and burning controls are different between digital and film processes. Other printing modifications include:

Chemicals and process used during film development
Duration of print exposure – equivalent to shutter speed
Printing aperture – equivalent to aperture, but has no effect on depth of field
Contrast – changing the visual properties of objects in an image to make them distinguishable from other objects and the background
Dodging – reduces exposure of certain print areas, resulting in lighter areas
Burning in – increases exposure of certain areas, resulting in darker areas
Paper texture – glossy, matte, etc.
Paper type – resin-coated (RC) or fiber-based (FB)
Paper size
Toners – used to add warm or cold tones to black and white prints

[edit] Uses

Photography gained the interest of many scientists and artists from its inception. Scientists have used photography to record and study movements, such as Eadweard Muybridge‘s study of human and animal locomotion in 1887. Artists are equally interested by these aspects but also try to explore avenues other than the photo-mechanical representation of reality, such as the pictorialist movement. Military, police, and security forces use photography for surveillance, recognition and data storage. Photography is used by amateurs to preserve memories of favorite times, to capture special moments, to tell stories, to send messages, and as a source of entertainment.

[edit] History

Main article: History of photography

First known surviving heliographic engraving, made by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce in 1825 by contact under an engraving with the “heliographic process”.^[3] This seminal work has been a step towards the first permanent photography from nature taken with a camera obscura, in 1826.

Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries. Long before the first photographs were made, Chinese philosopher Mo Di described a pinhole camera in the 5th century B.C.E.,^[4] Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965–1040) studied the camera obscura and pinhole camera,^[4]^[5] Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) discovered silver nitrate,^[6] and Georges Fabricius (1516–1571) discovered silver chloride.^{[citation needed]} Daniel Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1568.^{[citation needed]} Wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals (photochemical effect) in 1694.^{[citation needed]} The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, described what can be interpreted as photography.^{[citation needed]}

Invented in the first decades of the nineteenth century, photography (by way of the camera) seemed able to capture more detail and information than traditional mediums, such as painting and sculpting.^[7] Photography as a usable process goes back to the 1820s with the development of chemical photography. The first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822^[3] by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed by a later attempt to duplicate it.^[3] Niépce was successful again in 1825. He made the first permanent photograph from nature with a camera obscura in 1826. However, because his photographs took so long to expose (8 hours), he sought to find a new process. Working in conjunction with Louis Daguerre, they experimented with silver compounds based on a Johann Heinrich Schultz discovery in 1724 that a silver and chalk mixture darkens when exposed to light. Niépce died in 1833, but Daguerre continued the work, eventually culminating with the development of the daguerreotype in 1837. Daguerre took the first ever photo of a person in 1839 when, while taking a daguerreotype of a Paris street, a pedestrian stopped for a shoe shine, long enough to be captured by the long exposure (several minutes). Eventually, France agreed to pay Daguerre a pension for his formula, in exchange for his promise to announce his discovery to the world as the gift of France, which he did in 1839.

Mid 19th century “Brady stand” photo model’s armrest table, meant to keep portrait models more still during long exposure times (studio equipment nicknamed after the famed US photographer, Mathew Brady).

Meanwhile, Hercules Florence had already created a very similar process in 1832, naming it Photographie, and William Fox Talbot had earlier discovered another means to fix a silver process image but had kept it secret. After reading about Daguerre’s invention, Talbot refined his process so that portraits were made readily available to the masses. By 1840, Talbot had invented the calotype process, which creates negative images. John Herschel made many contributions to the new methods. He invented the cyanotype process, now familiar as the “blueprint”. He was the first to use the terms “photography”, “negative” and “positive”. He discovered sodium thiosulphate solution to be a solvent of silver halides in 1819, and informed Talbot and Daguerre of his discovery in 1839 that it could be used to “fix” pictures and make them permanent. He made the first glass negative in late 1839.

In March 1851, Frederick Scott Archer published his findings in “The Chemist” on the wet plate collodion process. This became the most widely used process between 1852 and the late 1880s when the dry plate was introduced. There are three subsets to the Collodion process; the Ambrotype (positive image on glass), the Ferrotype or Tintype (positive image on metal) and the negative which was printed on Albumen or Salt paper.

Many advances in photographic glass plates and printing were made in through the nineteenth century. In 1884, George Eastman developed the technology of film to replace photographic plates, leading to the technology used by film cameras today.

In 1908 Gabriel Lippmann won the Nobel Laureate in Physics for his method of reproducing colors photographically based on the phenomenon of interference, also known as the Lippmann plate.

[edit] Processes

A filter may be used to enhance or diminish the rendering of certain light wavelengths. For this photograph, a wratten #25 was used.

[edit] Black-and-white

[edit] Color

Main article: Color photography

Color photography was explored beginning in the mid 1800s. Early experiments in color could not fix the photograph and prevent the color from fading. The first permanent color photo was taken in 1861 by the physicist James Clerk Maxwell.

Early color photograph taken by Prokudin-Gorskii (1915).

One of the early methods of taking color photos was to use three cameras. Each camera would have a color filter in front of the lens. This technique provides the photographer with the three basic channels required to recreate a color image in a darkroom or processing plant. Russian photographer Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii developed another technique, with three color plates taken in quick succession.

Practical application of the technique was held back by the very limited color response of early film; however, in the early 1900s, following the work of photo-chemists such as H. W. Vogel, emulsions with adequate sensitivity to green and red light at last became available.

The first commercially successful color process, the Autochrome, invented by the French Lumière brothers, reached the market in 1907. It was based on a ‘screen-plate’ filter made of dyed grains of potato starch, and was one of many additive color screen products available between the 1890s and the 1950s. A later example of the additive screen process was the German Agfacolor introduced in 1932. In 1935, American Kodak introduced the first modern (‘integrated tri-pack’) color film which was developed by two musicians Leopold Mannes and Leopold Godowsky (“Man” and “God”) working with the Kodak Research Labs. It was Kodachrome, based on multiple layered silver gelatin emulsions that were each sensitized to one of the three additive colors—red, green, and blue. The cyan, magenta, and yellow dyes were created in those layers by adding color couplers during processing. This was followed in 1936 by Agfa’s Agfacolor Neu. Unlike the Kodachrome tri-pack process, the color couplers in Agfacolor Neu were incorporated into the emulsion layers during manufacture, which greatly simplified the film processing. Most modern color films, except Kodachrome, use such incorporated-coupler techniques, though since the 1970s nearly all have used a technique developed by Kodak to accomplish this, rather than the original Agfa method. Instant color film was introduced by Polaroid in 1963.

Color photography may form images as a positive transparency, intended for use in a slide projector, or as color negatives intended for use in creating positive color enlargements on specially coated paper. The latter is now the most common form of film (non-digital) color photography owing to the introduction of automated photoprinting equipment.

[edit] Full-spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared

Main article: Full spectrum photography

Ultraviolet and infrared films have been available for many decades and employed in a variety of photographic avenues since the 1960s. New technological trends in digital photography have opened a new direction in full spectrum photography, where careful filtering choices across the ultraviolet, visible and infrared lead to new artistic visions.

Modified digital cameras can detect some ultraviolet, all of the visible and much of the near infrared spectrum, as most digital imaging sensors are sensitive from about 350 nm to 1000 nm. An off-the-shelf digital camera contains an infrared hot mirror filter that blocks most of the infrared and a bit of the ultraviolet that would otherwise be detected by the sensor, narrowing the accepted range from about 400 nm to 700 nm.^[8] Replacing a hot mirror or infrared blocking filter with an infrared pass or a wide spectrally transmitting filter allows the camera to detect the wider spectrum light at greater sensitivity. Without the hot-mirror, the red, green and blue (or cyan, yellow and magenta) colored micro-filters placed over the sensor elements pass varying amounts of ultraviolet (blue window) and infrared (primarily red, and somewhat lesser the green and blue micro-filters).

Uses of full spectrum photography are for fine art photography, geology, forensics & law enforcement, and even some claimed use in ghost hunting.

[edit] Digital photography

A handheld digital camera, Canon Ixus class.

Olympus E-420 Four Thirds entry-level DSLR.

The Nikon D1, the first DSLR to truly compete with, and begin to replace, film cameras in the professional photojournalism and sports photography fields.

Nikon DSLR and scanner, which converts film images to digital

Sony Ericsson K800i camera phone.

Manual shutter control and exposure settings can achieve unusual results.

Main article: Digital photography

Traditional photography burdened photographers working at remote locations without easy access to processing facilities, and competition from television pressured photographers to deliver images to newspapers with greater speed. Photo journalists at remote locations often carried miniature photo labs and a means of transmitting images through telephone lines. In 1981, Sony unveiled the first consumer camera to use a charge-coupled device for imaging, eliminating the need for film: the Sony Mavica. While the Mavica saved images to disk, the images were displayed on television, and the camera was not fully digital. In 1990, Kodak unveiled the DCS 100, the first commercially available digital camera. Although its high cost precluded uses other than photojournalism and professional photography, commercial digital photography was born.

Digital imaging uses an electronic image sensor to record the image as a set of electronic data rather than as chemical changes on film. The primary difference between digital and chemical photography is that chemical photography resists manipulation because it involves film and photographic paper, while digital imaging is a highly manipulative medium. This difference allows for a degree of image post-processing that is comparatively difficult in film-based photography and permits different communicative potentials and applications.

Digital point-and-shoot cameras have become widespread consumer products, outselling film cameras, and including new features such as video and audio recording. Kodak announced in January 2004 that it would no longer sell reloadable 35 mm cameras in western Europe, Canada and the United States after the end of that year. Kodak was at that time a minor player in the reloadable film cameras market. In January 2006, Nikon followed suit and announced that they will stop the production of all but two models of their film cameras: the low-end Nikon FM10, and the high-end Nikon F6. On May 25, 2006, Canon announced they will stop developing new film SLR cameras.^[9] Though most new camera designs are now digital, a new 6x6cm/6x7cm medium format film camera was introduced in 2008 in a cooperation between Fuji and Voigtländer.^[10]^[11]

According to a survey made by Kodak in 2007, 75 percent of professional photographers say they will continue to use film, even though some embrace digital.^[12]

According to the U.S. survey results, more than two-thirds (68 percent) of professional photographers prefer the results of film to those of digital for certain applications including:

film’s superiority in capturing more information on medium and large format films (48 percent);
creating a traditional photographic look (48 percent);
capturing shadow and highlighting details (45 percent);
the wide exposure latitude of film (42 percent); and
archival storage (38 percent)

Digital imaging has raised many ethical concerns because of the ease of manipulating digital photographs in post processing. Many photojournalists have declared they will not crop their pictures, or are forbidden from combining elements of multiple photos to make “illustrations,” passing them as real photographs. Today’s technology has made picture editing relatively simple for even the novice photographer. However, recent changes of in-camera processing allows digital fingerprinting of RAW photos to verify against tampering of digital photos for forensics use.

Camera phones, combined with sites like Flickr, have led to a new kind of social photography.

[edit] Modes of production

[edit] Amateur

An amateur photographer is one who practices photography as a hobby and not for profit. The quality of some amateur work is comparable or superior to that of many professionals and may be highly specialized or eclectic in its choice of subjects. Amateur photography is often pre-eminent in photographic subjects which have little prospect of commercial use or reward.

[edit] Commercial

Commercial photography is probably best defined as any photography for which the photographer is paid for images rather than works of art. In this light money could be paid for the subject of the photograph or the photograph itself. Wholesale, retail, and professional uses of photography would fall under this definition. The commercial photographic world could include:

Advertising photography: photographs made to illustrate and usually sell a service or product. These images, such as packshots, are generally done with an advertising agency, design firm or with an in-house corporate design team.
Fashion and glamour photography: This type of photography usually incorporates models. Fashion photography emphasizes the clothes or product, glamour emphasizes the model. Glamour photography is popular in advertising and in men’s magazines. Models in glamour photography may be nude, but this is not always the case.
Crime Scene Photography: This type of photography consists of photographing scenes of crime such as robberies and murders. A black and white camera or an infrared camera may be used to capture specific details.
Still life photography usually depicts inanimate subject matter, typically commonplace objects which may be either natural or man-made.
Food photography can be used for editorial, packaging or advertising use. Food photography is similar to still life photography, but requires some special skills.
Editorial photography: photographs made to illustrate a story or idea within the context of a magazine. These are usually assigned by the magazine.
Photojournalism: this can be considered a subset of editorial photography. Photographs made in this context are accepted as a documentation of a news story.
Portrait and wedding photography: photographs made and sold directly to the end user of the images.
Landscape photography: photographs of different locations.
Wildlife photography that demonstrates life of the animals.
Photo sharing: publishing or transfer of a user’s digital photos online.
Paparazzi

The market for photographic services demonstrates the aphorism “A picture is worth a thousand words“, which has an interesting basis in the history of photography. Magazines and newspapers, companies putting up Web sites, advertising agencies and other groups pay for photography.

Many people take photographs for self-fulfillment or for commercial purposes. Organizations with a budget and a need for photography have several options: they can employ a photographer directly, organize a public competition, or obtain rights to stock photographs. Photo stock can be procured through traditional stock giants, such as Getty Images or Corbis; smaller microstock agencies, such as Fotolia; or web marketplaces, such as Cutcaster.

[edit] Art

Classic Alfred Stieglitz photograph, The Steerage shows unique aesthetic of black and white photos.

During the twentieth century, both fine art photography and documentary photography became accepted by the English-speaking art world and the gallery system. In the United States, a handful of photographers, including Alfred Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, John Szarkowski, F. Holland Day, and Edward Weston, spent their lives advocating for photography as a fine art. At first, fine art photographers tried to imitate painting styles. This movement is called Pictorialism, often using soft focus for a dreamy, ‘romantic’ look. In reaction to that, Weston, Ansel Adams, and others formed the Group f/64 to advocate ‘straight photography’, the photograph as a (sharply focused) thing in itself and not an imitation of something else.

The aesthetics of photography is a matter that continues to be discussed regularly, especially in artistic circles. Many artists argued that photography was the mechanical reproduction of an image. If photography is authentically art, then photography in the context of art would need redefinition, such as determining what component of a photograph makes it beautiful to the viewer. The controversy began with the earliest images “written with light”; Nicéphore Niépce, Louis Daguerre, and others among the very earliest photographers were met with acclaim, but some questioned if their work met the definitions and purposes of art.

Clive Bell in his classic essay Art states that only “significant form” can distinguish art from what is not art.

There must be some one quality without which a work of art cannot exist; possessing which, in the least degree, no work is altogether worthless. What is this quality? What quality is shared by all objects that provoke our aesthetic emotions? What quality is common to Sta. Sophia and the windows at Chartres, Mexican sculpture, a Persian bowl, Chinese carpets, Giotto’s frescoes at Padua, and the masterpieces of Poussin, Piero della Francesca, and Cezanne? Only one answer seems possible – significant form. In each, lines and colors combined in a particular way, certain forms and relations of forms, stir our aesthetic emotions.

—^[13]

On February 14, 2006 Sotheby’s London sold the 2001 photograph “99 Cent II Diptychon” for an unprecedented $3,346,456 to an anonymous bidder making it the most expensive of all time.

Conceptual photography

Photography that turns a concept or idea into a photograph. Even though what is depicted in the photographs are real objects, the subject is strictly abstract.

[edit] Science and forensics

Wootton bridge collapse in 1861

Original Tay Bridge from the north showing structure based on towers built from cast iron columns. When enlarged this plate shows a key design flaw in the bridge: the smaller surviving towers were supported by a continuous girder at their tops, while the fallen towers lack this essential reinforcing element.

Fallen Tay Bridge from the north. The two surviving high towers show a gap in their tops when the picture is enlarged.

The camera has a long and distinguished history as a means of recording phenomena from the first use by Daguerre and Fox-Talbot, such as astronomical events (eclipses for example), small creatures and plants when the camera was attached to the eyepiece of microscopes (in photomicroscopy) and for macro photography of larger specimens. The camera also proved useful in recording crime scenes and the scenes of accidents, such as the Wootton bridge collapse in 1861 and the Staplehurst rail crash of 1865. One of the first systematic applications occurred at the scene of the Tay Rail Bridge disaster of 1879. The court, just a few days after the accident, ordered James Valentine of Dundee to record the scene using both long distance shots and close-ups of the debris. The set of over 50 accident photographs was used in the subsequent court of inquiry so that witnesses could identify pieces of the wreckage, and the technique is now commonplace both at accident scenes and subsequent cases in courts of law. The set of over 50 Tay bridge photographs are of very high quality, being made on a large plate camera with a small aperture and using fine grain emulsion film on a glass plate. When the surviving positive prints are scanned at high resolution, they can be enlarged to show details of the failed components such as broken cast iron lugs and the tie bars which failed to hold the towers in place. The set of original photographs is held at Dundee City Library. The photographs show that, in the words of the Public Inquiry the bridge was “badly designed, badly built and badly maintained”. The methods used in analysing old photographs are collectively known as forensic photography.

Between 1846 and 1852 Charles Brooke invented a technology for the automatic registration of instruments by photography. These instruments included barometers, thermometers, psychrometers, and magnetometers, which recorded their readings by means of an automated photographic process.

5×7 in. unretouched photograph of the Wright brothers‘ first flight, 1903.

Photography has become ubiquitous in recording events and data in science and engineering, and at crime scenes or accident scenes. The method has been much extended by using other wavelengths, such as infrared photography and ultraviolet photography, as well as spectroscopy. Those methods were first used in the Victorian era and developed much further since that time.

[edit] Other image forming techniques

Besides the camera, other methods of forming images with light are available. For instance, a photocopy or xerography machine forms permanent images but uses the transfer of static electrical charges rather than photographic film, hence the term electrophotography. Photograms are images produced by the shadows of objects cast on the photographic paper, without the use of a camera. Objects can also be placed directly on the glass of an image scanner to produce digital pictures.

[edit] Social and cultural implications

There are many ongoing questions about different aspects of photography. In her writing “On Photography” (1977), Susan Sontag discusses concerns about the objectivity of photography. This is a highly debated subject within the photographic community.^[14] Sontag argues, “To photograph is to appropriate the thing photographed. It means putting one’s self into a certain relation to the world that feels like knowledge, and therefore like power.”^[15] Photographers decide what to take a photo of, what elements to exclude and what angle to frame the photo, and these factors may reflect a particular socio-historical context. Along these lines it can be argued that photography is a subjective form of representation.

Modern photography has raised a number of concerns on its impact on society. In Alfred Hitchcock‘s Rear Window (1954), the camera is presented as a promoter of voyeuristic inhibitions. ‘Although the camera is an observation station, the act of photographing is more than passive observing’.^[15] Michal Powell’s Peeping Tom (1960) portrays the camera as both sexual and sadistically violent technology that literally kills in this picture and at the same time captures images of the pain and anguish evident on the faces of the female victims.^{[citation needed]}

“The camera doesn’t rape or even possess, though it may presume, intrude, trespass, distort, exploit, and, at the farthest reach of metaphor, assassinate – all activities that, unlike the sexual push and shove, can be conducted from a distance, and with some detachment.”^[15]

Photography is one of the new media forms that changes perception and changes the structure of society.^[16] Further unease has been caused around cameras in regards to desensitization. Fears that disturbing or explicit images are widely accessible to children and society at large have been raised. Particularly, photos of war and pornography are causing a stir. Sontag is concerned that “to photograph is to turn people into objects that can be symbolically possessed.” Desensitization discussion goes hand in hand with debates about censored images. Sontag writes of her concern that the ability to censor pictures means the photographer has the ability to construct reality.^[15]

One of the practices through which photography constitutes society is tourism. Tourism and photography combine to create a “tourist gaze”^[17] in which local inhabitants are positioned and defined by the camera lens. However, it has also been argued that there exists a “reverse gaze”^[18] through which indigenous photographees can position the tourist photographer as a shallow consumer of images.

[edit] Law

Main article: Photography and the law

Photography is both restricted and protected by the law in many jurisdictions. Protection of photographs is typically achieved through the granting of copyright or moral rights to the photographer. In the UK a recent law (Counter-Terrorism Act 2008) increases the power of the police to prevent people, even press photographers, from taking pictures in public places.^[19]

[edit] Computational Inference of Photo Aesthetics

Since 2005, computer and information scientists at Penn State University have been developing a real-time system, ACQUINE (Aesthetic Quality Inference Engine), to infer photo aesthetics. The system leverages machine learning and statistical modeling techniques, as well as online manual ratings of photos. After a photograph is uploaded to the system, a score between 0 and 100 is given.^[20]

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[edit] Exposure and rendering

[edit] Uses

[edit] History

[edit] Processes

[edit] Black-and-white

[edit] Color

[edit] Full-spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared

[edit] Digital photography

[edit] Modes of production

[edit] Amateur

[edit] Commercial

[edit] Art

[edit] Science and forensics

[edit] Other image forming techniques

[edit] Social and cultural implications

[edit] Law

[edit] Computational Inference of Photo Aesthetics

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